Harvey Wiley and the Poison Squad

We as a people assume that the food we order or buy is safe to eat. This faith in our food comes in part from the Food and Drug Administration and the laws and regulations that govern our food. Currently the Food and Drug Administration oversees the country’s food supply. Also, it is responsible for assuring the safety of human and veterinary drugs, medical devices, cosmetics and tobacco. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) came into being with the passage of the 1906 Pure Food and Drugs Act. This law prohibited interstate commerce in misbranded food and drugs. Harvey Washington Wiley, chief chemist of the Department of Agriculture, had been the driving force behind this law and headed its enforcement. In the 1880s, when Wiley began his 50-year crusade for pure foods, America's marketplace was flooded with poor, often harmful products.

In 1902, Wiley was given a grant of $5,000 in order to study the safety of the chemical preservatives that were being added to foods. With this money, he assembled a troop of twelve men who became known as “The Poison Squad”. All of the men involved were were graduates of the civil service exam and were said to have high moral character and reliability. These men would meet in the basement of the Department of Agriculture (DOA), dressed in suite and tie, for the finest meals. The goal of the Poison Squad was to consume some of the most commonly used food additives in order to determine their effects. During each of the Poison Squad’s trials, the members would eat steadily increasing amounts of each additive, carefully tracking the impact that it had on their bodies. They would stop when they started to get sick. The members of the Poison Squad took an oath that, for a year, only allowed them to eat food prepared in the DOA kitchen. The goal was to

 “Investigate the character of food preservatives, coloring matters, and other substances added to foods, to determine their relation to digestion and to health, and to establish the principles which should guide their use."

-Wiley

The Poison Squad tested additives such as borax, sulfuric acid, saltpeter, formaldehyde and benzoic acid. These brave and iron stomached men suffered from many ailments including nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, liver damage, kidney damage, brain damage, and jaundice. The Poison Squad experiments got wide media coverage and caught public attention. It allowed people to question what they ate, and become open to change.

In 1907, the Poison Squad came to an end. In 1912 Wiley went to work for Good Housekeeping Magazine as the head of testing. It was during this time that the Good Housekeeping “Seal of Approval” became so desirable on a product Wiley also explored the effects of additive sugar and the negative effects of cigarettes. In 1921, an article of Wiley’s contributed to the passage of the Maternity Bill, which increased Federal funds for improved infant care and led to a reduction of the appalling infant mortality rate.

Quality food is important. Still today many preservatives are put in our food that we may not know the long term health effects of. Harvey Wiley started to examine the many questions that were proposed about preservatives and coloring in our food and opened up scientific and public knowledge on the subject.

Advertisements for many different remedies in the late 1800's and early 1900's

"The Poison Squad"

Harvey W. Wiley

http://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/whatwedo/history/default.htm
http://www.fdahistory.com/Clips_and_Trailers.html
http://www.blackcollegetv.net/VideoDetail.aspx?assetId=24712259746&pv=bio

Radon

Radon is a colorless, odorless inert gas. It was discovered be the English physicist Ernest Rutherford in 1899. In 1900, German physicist Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered the gas releasing properties of radium; radon gas. Radon gas easily penetrates most common materials, such as paper, plastics, concretes and wood due to its natural state as a single atom. Also, radon gas is soluble in water and organic solvents. These properties of radon gas are in part which makes it such a concern. Radon gas is radioactive and is released from the natural decay of uranium, thorium and radium. The two main types of radon that are prevalent in the human environment are radon-222 and radon-220. Radon-222 occurs from the decay of uranium where radon-220 occurs from the decay of thorium. Radon-222 is the form of radon that most readily -happens in the environment. The byproducts of the decay of radon-222 readily attach to the airborne particles and can easily be inhaled.

When humans are exposed to radon gas, the particles can damage cells with the body. Damage to the lungs is the most widely recognized association to radon exposure. Lung cancer is directly linked to radon gas. Each year, the United States has 15 to 22 thousand cases of lung cancer deaths directly linked to radon gas exposure each year. Radon gas has a quick rate of decay, which causes radioactive particles to be released. These are the particles which enter the body, mutate cells of the lungs, and lead to cancer. Overall, radon gas exposure is the second leading cause of lung cancer.

Radon gas is not a man made chemical product, but solely a naturally occurring product. It can be found in igneous rock and soil. There are a few scientific uses for radon gas such as initiating and influencing chemical reactions, however, there are no practical uses.

Radon gas causes major health issues, and is prevalent in the built environment. Houses and office buildings built on soil heavy in the elements uranium, thorium, and radon tend to have a higher affinity to radon gas. Also, basement levels and highly insulated areas have a higher radon level. Radon can be found in every building. It has been stated that radon levels higher than 4 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) is unsafe for living conditions. Radon can enter a building in many methods. Cracks in concrete, exposed soil in basements or crawlspaces, open drains to sump pumps, loose pipe fittings, and well water are some of the various ways that radon gas can enter a structure.

Due to the colorless, odorless, and tasteless nature of radon gas, it is impossible to tell the level of radon in a building without testing. If a high level of radon gas is present, the most reliable method of mitigation is known as sub slab suction. This places pipes under or in the foundation of a house to guide radon gas away. Other, less permanent, methods of reducing radon gas inside a building can be house pressurization, natural ventilation, heat recovery ventilation and sealing up cracks in a building's foundation.

Common Entry Points For Radon Gas

Mortalities by Cancer Type - 2010

 Natural Radon Levels - EPA

http://enhs.umn.edu/hazards/hazardssite/radon/radonprevention.html

http://www.epa.gov/radon/

http://www.radon.com/radon/radon_facts.html

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/radon

http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/indoorair/radon/

Carrageenan

Carrageenan is a natural product made from various parts of red algae or seaweed. Commonly, two types of seaweed are used in the production of commercial carrageenan, E. cottonii and E. spinosum. It was in the 1930’s that carrageenan began to be used on an industrial level, however is has been reported to be used in China since 600 B.C. In 2011, the Philippines were the largest producer of carrageenan, producing about 80% of the world’s supply. Naturally, the types of seaweed which is used for carrageenan can be found off of the Atlantic coast of Britain, Europe, and North America.

Carrageenan farms consist of rows of seaweed plants growing on nylon strings floating in the water. The plants are harvested about every three months. After harvesting the plants, they are dried and baled. The plants, ready for manufacturing, are ground, sorted, and washed. The cellulose (plant cell walls) is removed from the carrageenan by centrifuge, filtration, and evaporation. Three different types of industrial processing can be used in the processing of carrageenan, semi-refined, refined, and mixed processing.

Similar to gelatin and cornstarch, the main industrial uses of carrageenan is as a thickening agent, emulsifier, and a stabilizer. Processed foods such as cheese, chocolate milk, and jellies may all contain carrageenan. Processed meats such as sausages and hams can also contain carrageenan. Foods such as jellies, marshmallow fluff, and syrups use carrageenan as a thickener. An emulsifying agent allows liquids to stay mixed together. In this sense, carrageenan is used to allow chocolate milk, yogurts and other dairies to stay mixed together. Also, carrageenan can be used in ice creams to prevent sugar and ice from crystallizing. Carrageenan is only needed in foods which may need to travel or sit on a shelf and still appear appealing. If food is to be eaten immediately, there is no need for carrageenan or any other “gum” agent. Because carrageenan is made from seaweed, it is considered to be “natural” and able to be used in USDA certified organic foods.

Other than the food industry, carrageenan is used for medical purposes; however this is not as common. It is said that carrageenan can be used to help with coughs, bronchitis, and intestinal discomfort. It may also aid peptic ulcers and used as a laxative or a topical ointment.

Undegraded carrageenan is food quality, however degraded carrageenan is not. Carrageenan becomes degraded when acid is used to separate the cellulose from the gelatin substance. It is said that degraded carrageenan is a known carcinogen and tumor promoter in many lab animals. Also, it is believed to cause gastrointestinal malignancy and inflammatory bowel disease. Studies funded by the carrageenan industry finds no proof of these claims; however, many claims do not believe carrageenan should be consumed at any levels or levels higher than 5%.

Whether tumors and discomfort are a side effect of carrageenan or not, for every product on the shelf which contains it, there is a readily available alternative most likely sitting on the shelf next to it.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1242073/

http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-710-carrageenan.aspx?activeingredientid=710&activeingredientname=carrageenan

http://www.cornucopia.org/carrageenan-2013/

TNM Staging System

A tumor can either be benign or malignant.  When a tumor is benign, it is not cancerous.  The mass of cells is contained to its original location, and even though it can continue to grow, it does not spread to other parts of the body.  When a tumor is malignant, it is cancerous.  The tumor will grow, however, unlike a benign tumor; it will spread to other parts of the body.  Also, after the removal of a malignant tumor, it often will recur. 

Staging a tumor is often the next step after a cancer diagnosis.  Staging helps oncologists plan treatments, and assists in evaluating treatment results.  The TNM staging system is the common method of staging which allows health professionals to communicate about a tumor.  TNM staging is based on the size of the tumor (T), whether lymph nodes have been affected (N) and if the tumor has spread to other parts of the body, or metastasis (M) has occurred.  The TNM staging system has been around for more than fifty years.  The TNM Committee is made up of cancer experts from around the world. In general, each part of the TNM staging system is broken down into multiple parts. 

T - Tumor

TX: Primary tumor cannot be evaluated

T0: No evidence of primary tumor

Tis:  In situ (cells are not spreading and not cancerous, but can turn into cancer)

T1, T2, T3, T4: Size of the primary tumor

N - Lymph Nodes

NX: Lymph nodes cannot be evaluated

N0: No lymph node involvement

N1, N2, N3: Degree of regional lymph node involvement

M - Metastasis

MX: Metastasis cannot be evaluated

M0: No metastasis

M1: Metastasis is present

Each different type of cancer has its own method of classification on the TNM system.  Because of this, once a doctor determines the TNM of a cancer, a general stage from 0-4 (0, I, II, III, IV) is assigned.  In general, cancers that are in stage 0 are considered “in situ”, meaning that they have not spread past the initial location.  Stage I cancer is considered “localized”.  At this point, the tumor has spread to nearby tissue but is still in the original mass.  At this point, the cancer or tumor is considered a threat to life.  Stages II, and III are considered “regional spread”.  During these stages the lymph nodes are affected by the cancer and tumors can develop in the lymph node.  The cancers has spread to other organs or tissues in the area, but have not moved to other major body regions.  The final stage of cancer, stage IV, is called “distant spread”.  During stage IV, the cancer has been able to make its way throughout the body and tumors can begin to develop throughout the body.

The stage of cancer does not change overtime.  Even if a cancer spreads, it is still referred to as the stage it was in when first diagnosed.  Doctors will restage a cancer after treatments or periods of remission.  Restaging allows doctors to determine the best treatment of cancers that come back or are resilient to treatment.  Exams, imaging tests, biopsies, and surgery are all methods to stage and restage cancers and tumors.

http://www.nccn.org/patients/resources/diagnosis/staging.aspx

https://cancerstaging.org/references-tools/Pages/What-is-Cancer-Staging.aspx

http://www.uicc.org/resources/tnm

http://www.cancer.org/treatment/understandingyourdiagnosis/staging

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/staging

http://pathology.jhu.edu/pc/BasicTypes1.php

Biotransformation

The body is an amazing organism which is able to handle much of what is consumed by it. When foreign chemicals are put in the body, what we think of as drugs, it is able to either eliminate or use them. The term used scientifically for these foreign chemicals, often ones which cannot be produced naturally, are known as xenobiotics. Eventually, all chemicals put into the body end up as waste. The process of getting a chemical from its original structure to waste is known as biotransformation. Biotransformation is defined as the conversion of molecules from one form into another within an organism. When a chemical goes through biotransformation, ultimately one of three things can happen. The chemical can increase its toxicity (known as bioactivation), decrease its toxicity (known as detoxification), or stay the same. The major organ which carries out biotransformation is the liver; however the kidney, lungs, testes, skin, and intestines can play a part in biotransformation processes. In general, the liver hosts enzymatic processes that modify the chemical structure of xenobiotics making them more water-soluble. Increasing the water-solubility of a chemical, or making them more hydrophilic, increases their ability to be eliminated and decreases their half-life.

Enzymes are the catalysts for nearly all biochemical reactions in the body. Without these enzymes, biotransformation reactions would take place slowly or not at all. This can cause major health problems. The enzymes are often known to have a lock and key relationship. This means that the enzyme binding site is a specific shape, and a perfectly matching substrate is needed to bind to and activate the enzyme. If the substrate does not fit into the enzyme, no reaction can occur. An enzyme can have absolute specificity (an enzyme will only catalyze one reaction), group specificity (an enzyme can catalyze any molecule with a specific functional group), and linkage specificity (an enzyme will react with any molecule with a certain chemical bond).

There are two phases of biotransformation; phase I and phase II. During phase I biotransformation, an enzyme exposes or adds a functional group to a xenobiotics. Oxidation and reduction takes place during phase I biotransformation. The most common oxidizing enzyme is cytochrome P450 (cytP450). CytP450 has the ability to reduce xenobiotics under anaerobic (low oxygen) conditions. This causes lipid soluble xenobiotics to become more water soluble. It is during phase I that a substance will become inactive, active, or not change. From this point, many chemical substances can be excreted directly in urine. For those substances that cannot be excreted yet, phase II biotransformation takes place. One of the major phase II pathways in mammals (except cats) is called glucuronidation. During glucuronidation, glucuronic acid is combined with toxins. Glucuronidation almost always results in decreased potency and half life of a chemical. If a xenobiotic makes it to phase II, upon completion it is excreted in urine.

The course of xenobiotics in the body is attempting to be modeled and traced through an organism. This study is known as toxicokinetics. Many factors can influence the biotransformation capacity of the liver including liver pathologies, age, sex, and species differences.

http://web.squ.edu.om/med-Lib/MED_CD/E_CDs/anesthesia/site/content/v02/020160r00.HTM

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150674/

http://classes.uleth.ca/200901/biol3440a/BIO3440.3BiotransformationWEB.pdf

Meth Homes / Meth Labs

Meth, or methamphetamine, is a class A drug, and a class II stimulant. The key ingredient in making meth is pseudoephedrine, often found in cold medicine, however dangerous and deadly chemicals such as battery acid, drain cleaner, lantern fuel and antifreeze are used in the making of meth. Meth is often cooked in crude and unstable laboratories, in cars, houses, or hotel rooms. During the production of meth, a property can become contaminated with hazardous chemicals, and there is a strong risk of fire or explosion.

The Chemicals present in meth labs fall into three main categories: solvents, metals and salts, and corrosives (strong acids or bases). Solvents and corrosives may be gases or liquids. Because of this they are considered the greatest risk for inhalation exposure. Some of the well known solvents and corrosives found in meth labs are Ammonia, Benzyl Chloride, Acetone, and Benzene. Unless present in fine powders that become airborne, the chemicals that are in solid form, such as Lead Acetate, present little inhalation risk. Inhalation and absorption through the skin are the most common way that people are exposed to these common meth lab chemicals.

When meth is being cooked vapors from the chemicals often cling to the ceiling and seep through the walls into the drywall. While still in working operation there is a high risk for exposure to harmful chemicals in meth labs. However, after the meth lab is seized, and even after cleanup, there can be the potential for chronic exposure to many harmful chemicals. Volatile Organic Compounds, or VOC’s, found as vapors may cause symptoms such as nose and throat irritation, headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, confusion and breathing difficulties. However, exposure to VOC’s, and other present chemicals, in meth labs can cause symptoms as severe as cancer, damage to the brain, liver and kidneys, birth defects, and reproductive issues.

Other than the chemicals readily present during and after cooking meth, laboratories also create a lot of toxic waste. According to the state of Oregon Division of Public Health, one pound of meth produces five to seven pounds of waste. This off product is often disposed of in an illegal manner and can sit inside, or outside, of a meth lab. Often, the liquid waste is dumped down drains, which leads to public water sewers. Also, contamination of soil and ground water can occur. People exposed to this waste, including neighbors, can become sick or poisoned from it. Also, the cooking process of methamphetamines creates a highly flammable situation, and can induce explosions.

Once a meth lab is cleaned up, and is in regulation according to the state, the property can be inhabited. However, just because the property has been clean up, there can be residual toxins. Over long periods of time, chronic exposures to these chemicals can occur. Also, in about half of the states, full disclosure of a meth lab is not required by the realtor, even though there are ordinates in place about cleanup and notification in most states. Also, a majority of the states keep lists and records of former meth lab locations.

 

                                 Meth Labs and Incidents in the United States - 2012- US DEA

                                               Chemicals used to make methamphetamine

                                                     Meth pipe and methamphetamine

                                                               Meth lab cleanup

                                                               Meth lab cleanup

http://www.justice.gov/dea/clan-lab/oh.pdf

http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/crystalmeth/what-is-meth-made-from.html

http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/factsheets/meth-labs.htm

http://methlabhomes.com/how-meth-labs-can-effect-your-health/

https://public.health.oregon.gov/HealthyEnvironments/EnvironmentalExposures/HazardousSites/ClandestineDrugLabs/Pages/chemicals.aspx

Epi-Genetics

Multiple Chemical Sensitivity

The ailment known as Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) is a controversial illness which is said to affect, in some way, between 2% and 10% of people. The most commonly affected people are from the ages of 30 to 50, and more women than men claim to have MCS. The USEPA says that about 1/3 of all people who work in a sealed building are affected and have symptoms of this ailment. MCS also has been referred to as environmental hypersensitivity, idiopathic environmental intolerance, sick building syndrome and environmental illness. There are almost endless symptoms for MCS, and it is arguably the only illness which the patient must both identify the cause and the symptoms of the condition. The symptoms of MCS generally fall in one or all of three categories: central nervous system symptoms, respiratory and mucosal irritation, or gastrointestinal problems. That means that a symptom can be anything from a headache, irritability, nasal congestion, or a sore throat to changes in heart rhythm, breathing problems and memory loss. With such a wide range of possible symptoms, it is almost impossible for medical professionals to diagnose Multiple Chemical Sensitivity.

Currently some of the leading medical institutes, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Medical Association and the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, do not consider MCS to be a physical disorder. The lack of adequate research done on MCS is one of the reasons which it is not recognized. Also, unlike an allergic reaction, people with MCS do not develop antibodies, or any traceable immune response, to their chemical irritants. This makes medically pinpointing a cause extremely difficult. According to the Cleveland Clinic, patients with MCS have a high rate of mental disorder, more specifically depression, anxiety and somatoform disorders (a mental illness that causes physical symptoms). It is said that 50% of all people with MCS also fit the standards for depression and anxiety. It is currently unknown whether this relationship is causational.

In 1997, a study completed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, part of the National Institute of Health, was done which had successful outcomes to reduce the symptoms of MCS. The treatment was done using psychological desensitization and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI). Though this study treated symptoms of MCS, it appears to only have treated the mental component of MCS, reducing the anxiety of chemical exposure. Other treatments which are used for MCS are chemical avoidance, nutrient therapy, sauna therapy and detoxification. Chemical avoidance is simply eliminating exposure to chemicals which prove to cause negative reactions. Chemical avoidance is the most effective treatment for MCS. It includes chemical free households as well as chemical free alternatives to daily necessities. Nutrient therapy is based around the concept that people with MCS often do not absorb the needed nutrients, causing certain symptoms. Nutrient therapy allows replacement of needed nutrients as well as decreasing the amount of nitric oxide in the body. Sauna therapy and detoxification aims at reducing heavy metals and other chemicals stored in fat cells. This may be done by way of sauna, sweating out toxins, or chelating therapy.

Because of the same reasons which MCS is not considered a physical disorder, it is extremely to measure the outcomes of treatments for Multiple Chemical Sensitivity. The only way, at the moment, to relieve symptoms of MCS is chemical avoidance. Even though other treatments may have successful outcomes for some, it is not guaranteed to work for every case of MCS.

People who suffer from MCS are like "Canaries in a mine". 

 They can sense chemicals in very small, usually unnoticeable, doses.

http://mcs-america.org/index_files/mcsmedicaltreatment.htm

http://www.psychosomaticsjournal.com/article/S0033-3182(98)71289-7/abstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23947742

https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/multiplechemicalsensitivities/

http://my.clevelandclinic.org/disorders/multiple_chemical_sensitivity/hic_multiple_chemical_sensitivity_fact_or_fiction.aspx

National Institute of Health - ClinicalTrials.gov

Clinical studies are a necessity to aid in medical knowledge. Unlike much of the leg work that will preface clinical studies, once a chemical, medicine, or device gets to the stage of clinical study, human subjects are involved. There are two main types of clinical studies: interventional studies, known as clinical trials, and observational studies. A complete list of both types of clinical studies can be found at clinicaltrials.gov, a website associated with the U.S. National Institutes of Health.

The National Institute of Health (NIH) came about in 1887 as part of the Marine Hospital Service, which was created to provide relief for seamen who were suffering from disease or disability. Originally, the Marine Hospital Service was located on Staten Island and was charged with the responsibility to check all incoming persons for infectious diseases, mainly cholera and yellow fever. It wasn’t until 1891 that the headquarters of the NIH moved to Washington D.C. Currently the NIH headquarters stands in Bethesda, Maryland. The NIH is made up of twenty seven institutes and centers. These include the National Cancer Institute, National Human Genome Research Institute as well as National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. In general, the National Institute of Health strives to improve general health, ensure the nation's capability to prevent disease, expand the knowledge of medicine and science, and to promote scientific integrity.

The NIH is the leading organization behind much of the recent medical research, and the largest source of medical funding in the world. Currently, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, one of the institutes under the NIH, is running clinical studies on a vaccine for Ebola. Also, a NIH funded scientist, Pardis Sabeti, used genomic sequencing to identify the event which originally transmitted Ebola from an animal to human, starting the outbreak in West Africa. It was found by Dr. Sabeti that the strain responsible for the 2014 outbreak can be traced backed to the 2004 Ebola outbreak in Central Africa. The NIH also encompasses the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) which is the leading scientific group behind much of the nation’s biodefense’s. The NIAID works with many other NIH institutes in order to keep the nation safe and citizens healthy.

The clinical study surrounding the Ebola vaccine is one of the types of studies that would be found on clinicaltrials.gov. Once on the website, a visitor can search all studies on a worldwide level. Searches can be done for studies by country, using an interactive map, which shows the number of clinical studies in each country, or using a general search engine. The status of the trial is stated, allowing results to be seen if applicable, as well as allowing a visitor to potentially join a clinical study if possible. Clinicaltrials.gov not only focuses on studies being held in the United States, but as well as worldwide studies and studies specific to other countries. Currently, this site has information on 174,156 studies with locations in all 50 states and in 187 countries.

National Institute of Health - Main Headquarters: Bethesda, Maryland

National Institute of Health - Labs

http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/home

http://www.nih.gov/